<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.2 20190208//EN"
  "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.2/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"
         article-type="review-article">

  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">JCARM</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Journal of Contemporary Academic Research and Methodologies</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title>JCARM</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
            <issn pub-type="epub">3139-7247</issn>
            <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Ivory and Finch Publishers</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>

    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5281/zenodo.23279243</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">JCARM_SEP_26_022</article-id>

      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>

      <title-group>
        <article-title>Between the Dragon and the Eagle: Strategic Autonomy, Sovereignty and Kenya&#039;s Diplomacy in an Era of Great-Power Competition</article-title>
      </title-group>

      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
                        <surname>Onyinkwa Mokoro</surname>
            <given-names>Emmanuel</given-names>
          </name>
                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4580-960X</contrib-id>
                    <aff>Borangi Consultants, Kenya</aff>
          <email>emmanmokoro@gmail.com</email>
        </contrib>
              </contrib-group>

            <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>1</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      
      
            <self-uri xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23279243"/>
      
      <abstract>
        <p>Kenya occupies a distinctive position in contemporary global affairs, acting simultaneously as a crucial security partner for the United States, an important economic destination for Chinese capital, and a prominent defender of African agency within international institutions. This article examines how Nairobi can leverage great-power competition to its advantage without allowing external alliances to compromise domestic policy space. Drawing upon theories of strategic autonomy, African agency, neoclassical realism, and complex interdependence, we conceptualize Kenya&#039;s current diplomatic posture as an exercise in pragmatic multi-alignment rather than rigid bloc adherence. Using a qualitative documentary analysis of official policy frameworks, scholarly assessments, and authoritative reports, the study tracks Kenya&#039;s evolving relationships with both Washington and Beijing across key sectors including defence, infrastructure, technology, sovereign debt, and regional governance. The analysis indicates that Kenya&#039;s primary diplomatic objective should not center on choosing a single patron, but rather on building the internal institutional mechanisms necessary to evaluate and choose partnerships on an issue-by-issue basis. Ultimately, we propose a sovereignty-driven operational model anchored in partnership diversification, strict contract transparency, proactive parliamentary oversight, and technological independence.</p>
      </abstract>

            <kwd-group kwd-group-type="author-keywords">
                <kwd>Kenya</kwd>
                <kwd>Strategic Autonomy</kwd>
                <kwd>Multi-Alignment</kwd>
                <kwd>China</kwd>
                <kwd>United States</kwd>
                <kwd>Sovereignty.</kwd>
              </kwd-group>
      
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
                <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
              </history>

      <permissions>
        <copyright-statement>Copyright &copy; 2026 by the authors</copyright-statement>
        <license license-type="open-access">
          <license-p>This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>

    </article-meta>
  </front>

    <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
                      <ref id="ref-1">
          <mixed-citation>Acharya, A. (2014). Global international relations (IR) and regional worlds: A new agenda for international studies. International Studies Quarterly, 58(4), 647–659.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-2">
          <mixed-citation>AllAfrica (2025a, 7 August). Kenya: U.S. Senate orders deep review of Kenya&#039;s Major Non-NATO Ally status. AllAfrica.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-3">
          <mixed-citation>AllAfrica (2025b, 24 April). Kenyan president visits China as country pivots away from the U.S. AllAfrica.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-4">
          <mixed-citation>AllAfrica (2025c, 7 November). Kenya: Ruto discusses trade, security and technology with U.S. embassy team. AllAfrica.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-5">
          <mixed-citation>AllAfrica (2024, 31 May). Africa: William Ruto wins in Washington ,  but does Kenya? AllAfrica.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-6">
          <mixed-citation>Al Jazeera (2024, 23 May). US to designate Kenya as &#039;non-NATO ally&#039; during Ruto visit. Al Jazeera.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-7">
          <mixed-citation>Anderson, D. (2020). Kenya&#039;s war in Somalia. In N. Cheeseman, K. Kanyinga, and G. Lynch (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics (pp. 576–589). Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-8">
          <mixed-citation>Associated Press (2025, 24 April). Kenyan president vows closer ties to China during visit amid Trump&#039;s trade war. Associated Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-9">
          <mixed-citation>Brautigam, D. (2009). The Dragon&#039;s Gift: The Real Story of China in Africa. Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-10">
          <mixed-citation>Brautigam, D. (2015). Will Africa Feed China? Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-11">
          <mixed-citation>Brown, W. (2012). A question of agency: Africa in international politics. Third World Quarterly, 33(10), 1889–1908.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-12">
          <mixed-citation>Brown, W., and Harman, S. (Eds.). (2013). African Agency in International Politics. Routledge.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-13">
          <mixed-citation>Calzati, S. (2022). &#039;Data sovereignty&#039; or &#039;data colonialism&#039;? Exploring the Chinese involvement in Africa&#039;s ICTs: A document review on Kenya. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 40(2), 270–285.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-14">
          <mixed-citation>Cheeseman, N., Kanyinga, K., and Lynch, G. (Eds.). (2020). The Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics. Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-15">
          <mixed-citation>Coons, C. (2024a, 24 May). Senator Coons, colleagues introduce resolution celebrating 60-year anniversary of U.S.-Kenya relations. Office of Senator Chris Coons.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-16">
          <mixed-citation>Coons, C. (2024b, 29 May). ICYMI: Senator Coons publishes op-ed about U.S.-Kenya relations following President Ruto&#039;s historic state visit. Office of Senator Chris Coons.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-17">
          <mixed-citation>Council on Foreign Relations (2024, 20 May). A preview of Kenya&#039;s state visit. Council on Foreign Relations.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-18">
          <mixed-citation>Gnedina, E. (2015). &#039;Multi-vector&#039; foreign policies in Europe: Balancing, bandwagoning or bargaining? Europe-Asia Studies, 67(7), 1007–1029.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-19">
          <mixed-citation>Hall, I. (2016). Multialignment and Indian foreign policy under Narendra Modi. ISAS Insights, Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-20">
          <mixed-citation>Institute for Security Studies (2024, 31 May). William Ruto wins in Washington ,  but does Kenya? ISS Today.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-21">
          <mixed-citation>Keohane, R. O., and Nye, J. S. (1977). Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition. Little, Brown.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-22">
          <mixed-citation>Lake, D. A. (2013). Theory is dead, long live theory: The end of the great debates and the rise of eclecticism in International Relations. European Journal of International Relations, 19(3), 567–587.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-23">
          <mixed-citation>Nyabola, N. (2018). Digital Democracy, Analogue Politics: How the Internet Era Is Transforming Kenya. Zed Books.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-24">
          <mixed-citation>Plummer, A. (2022). Kenya&#039;s Engagement with China: Discourse, Power, and Agency. Michigan State University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-25">
          <mixed-citation>Ripsman, N. M., Taliaferro, J. W., and Lobell, S. E. (2016). Neoclassical Realist Theory of International Politics. Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-26">
          <mixed-citation>Strange, S. (1996). The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy. Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-27">
          <mixed-citation>United States, Department of Defense (2024, 24 May). Readout of Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III&#039;s meeting with Kenya President William Ruto.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-28">
          <mixed-citation>United States, The White House (2024a, 23 May). Message to the Congress on the intent to designate Kenya as a Major Non-NATO Ally.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                              <ref id="ref-29">
          <mixed-citation>United States, The White House (2024b, 24 June). Memorandum on the designation of Kenya as a Major Non-NATO Ally. Presidential Determination No. 2024-05.</mixed-citation>
        </ref>
                  </ref-list>
  </back>
  
</article>
