BJAR British Journal of Advanced Research BJAR 3153-709X Ivory and Finch Publishers 10.68263/BJAR-HXFMVXVP BJAR_OCT_26_097 Review Article Coliphages and Human Adenoviruses as Viral Indicators of Faecal Contamination in Water: A Critical Review of Environmental Occurrence, Detection Methods, and Public Health Risk with Implications for Food Safety in Nigeria Fasuan Oluwatayo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7263-5262 Department of Public Health, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti fasuantayo@abuad.edu.ng Ogunnusi Tolulope Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Akpor Oghenerobor Department of Biological Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Susan Fasuan Oluwabunmi Department of Biological Sciences, Babalola Olumilua University of Education, Science and Technology, Ikere-Ekiti, Nigeria 10 11 2026 1 5

This review synthesises current knowledge on the role of viral indicators, specifically coliphages and human adenoviruses (HAdVs), for assessing faecal contamination in water. It aims to bridge environmental monitoring and food safety perspectives by evaluating the occurrence, detection, and public health implications of these viral contaminants across water matrices, with implications for food production systems. Traditional bacterial indicators do not accurately reflect the hazards associated with viral pathogens. While HAdVs have become reliable markers of faecal pollution due to their high environmental stability, global prevalence, and presence in sewage, coliphages show environmental stability comparable to enteric viruses and are becoming more widely recognised for source tracking. Probabilistic estimation of infection risks from aquatic viruses is now possible thanks to quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) frameworks. There is a clear connection between water quality and food safety since polluted water sources, especially surface water utilised for irrigation and post-harvest processing, act as vital vectors for virus transmission to fresh produce and shellfish. Predicting public health threats accurately requires including viral markers in regular water quality monitoring. Standardising procedures and increasing environmental surveillance should be the top priorities in future initiatives to reduce viral exposures from food and water in Nigeria.

 Coliphages Faecal Contamination Food Safety Human adenoviruses Microbial Risk Assessment Water Quality Viral Indicators. 28 10 2026 01 11 2026 Copyright © 2026 by the authors This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. References Abe, H., Takeoka, K., Fuchisawa, Y., Koyama, K., & Koseki, S. (2021). A new dose-response model for estimating the infection probability of Campylobacter jejuni based on the key events dose-response framework. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 87(20), e01299-21. Aborode, A. T., Otorkpa, O. J., Abdullateef, A. O., Oluwaseun, O. S., Adegoye, G. A., Aondongu, N. J., & Komakech, J. J. (2025). Impact of Climate Change-Induced Flooding Water Related Diseases and Malnutrition in Borno State, Nigeria: A Public Health Crisis. Environmental Health Insights, 19, 11786302251321683. Ahona, N. (2025). The effect of secondary and tertiary wastewater treatments on removal of coliphages (Master's thesis, Itä-Suomen yliopisto). Allende A. & Monaghan J. (2015) Irrigation water quality for leafy crops: a perspective of risks and potential solutions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. Jul;12(7):7457-77. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707457 Bailey, E. S., Price, M., Casanova, L. M., & Sobsey, M. D. (2017). E. coli CB390: An alternative E. coli host for simultaneous detection of somatic and F+ coliphage viruses in reclaimed and other waters. Journal of virological methods, 250, 25-28. Balla, D., Zichar, M., Kiss, E., Szabó, G., & Mester, T. (2022). Possibilities for assessment and geovisualization of spatial and temporal water quality data using a WebGIS application. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(2), 108. Benjamin-Chung, J., Arnold, B. F., Wade, T. J., Schiff, K., Griffith, J. F., Dufour, A. P., Weisberg, S. B., & Colford, J. M., Jr (2017). Coliphages and Gastrointestinal Illness in Recreational Waters: Pooled Analysis of Six Coastal Beach Cohorts. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), 28(5), 644–652. Besler, I., Sazinas, P., Harrison, C., Gannon, L., Redgwell, T., Michniewski, S., & Millard, A. (2020). Genome sequence and characterization of Coliphage vB_Eco_SLUR29. Phage, 1(1), 38-44. Bisseux, M., Colombet, J., Mirand, A., Roque-Afonso, A. M., Abravanel, F., Izopet, J., Archimbaud, C., Peigue-Lafeuille, H., Debroas, D., Bailly, J. L. & Henquell, C. (2018). Monitoring human enteric viruses in wastewater and relevance to infections encountered in the clinical setting: a one-year experiment in central France, 2014 to 2015. Eurosurveillance, 23(7), 17-00237. Boehm, A. B., Soller, J. A., & Shanks, O. C. (2015). Human-associated fecal quantitative polymerase chain reaction measurements and simulated risk of gastrointestinal illness in recreational waters contaminated with raw sewage. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 2(10), 270-275. Bosch, A., Pintó, R. M., & Guix, S. (2016). Foodborne viruses. Current Opinion in Food Science, 8, 110–119. Breitbart, M., Bonnain, C., Malki, K., & Sawaya, N. A. (2018). Phage puppet masters of the marine microbial realm. Nature Microbiology, 3(7), 754–766. Brouwer, A. F., Masters, N. B., & Eisenberg, J. N. S. (2018). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment and Infectious Disease Transmission Modeling of Waterborne Enteric Pathogens. Current Environmental Health Reports, 5(2), 293–304. Bwire, G., Sack, D. A., Kagirita, A., Obala, T., Debes, A. K., Ram, M., Komakech, H., George, C. M., & Orach, C. G. (2020). The quality of drinking and domestic water from the surface water sources (lakes, rivers, irrigation canals and ponds) and springs in cholera prone communities of Uganda: an analysis of vital physicochemical parameters. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1128. Campos, C. J. & Lees, D. N. (2014). Environmental transmission of human noroviruses in shellfish waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. Jun 15;80(12):3552-61. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.04188-13 Carducci, A., Donzelli, G., Cioni, L., Federigi, I., Lombardi, R., & Verani, M. (2018). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment for Workers Exposed to Bioaerosol in Wastewater Treatment Plants Aimed at the Choice and Setup of Safety Measures. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(7), 1490. Chang, S. Y., Lee, C. N., Lin, P. H., Huang, H. H., Chang, L. Y., Ko, W., Chang, S. F., Lee, P. I., Huang, L. M., & Kao, C. L. (2008). A community-derived outbreak of adenovirus type 3 in children in Taiwan between 2004 and 2005. Journal of Medical Virology, 80(1), 102–112. Cheng, C., Zhang, F., Shi, J., & Kung, H. T. (2022). What is the relationship between land use and surface water quality? A review and prospects from remote sensing perspective. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(38), 56887-56907. Chowdhary, P., Bharagava, R. N., Mishra, S., & Khan, N. (2020). Role of industries in water scarcity and its adverse effects on environment and human health. In Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development 1: Air, Water and Energy Resources (pp. 235-256). Singapore: Springer Singapore. Colburn, A. T., & Kavouras, S. A. (2021). Tap water consumption and perceptions in United States latinx adults. Nutrients, 13(9), 2999. Dobrinas, S., Soceanu, A., Manea, N., Sirbu, A., Dumitrescu, C.I., Popescu, V., Birghila, S., Matei, N. and Popovici, I.C. (2022). Health risk assessment of fluoride exposure due to groundwater consumption in Romania. Journal of Water and Health, 20(9),1380-1392. Eisenberg, J. N., Trostle, J., Sorensen, R. J., & Shields, K. F. (2012). Toward a systems approach to enteric pathogen transmission: from individual independence to community interdependence. Annual Review of Public Health, 33, 239–257. Englehardt, J. D. (2004). Predictive Bayesian dose-response assessment for appraising absolute health risk from available information. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 10(1), 69-78. Englehardt, J. D., & Swartout, J. (2004). Predictive population dose-response assessment for Cryptosporidium parvum: Infection endpoint. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 67(8-10), 651-666. Erdman, D. D., Xu, W., Gerber, S. I., Gray, G. C., Schnurr, D., Kajon, A. E., & Anderson, L. J. (2002). Molecular epidemiology of adenovirus type 7 in the United States, 1966-2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8(3), 269–277. Farkas, K., Cooper, D. M., McDonald, J. E., Malham, S. K., de Rougemont, A., & Jones, D. L. (2018). Seasonal and spatial dynamics of enteric viruses in wastewater and in riverine and estuarine receiving waters. The Science of the Total Environment, 634, 1174–1183. Farkas, K., Walker, D. I., Adriaenssens, E. M., McDonald, J. E., Hillary, L. S., Malham, S. K., & Jones, D. L. (2020). Viral indicators for tracking domestic wastewater contamination in the aquatic environment. Water Research, 181, 115926. Fasuan O, Ogunnusi T, Akpor O. Evaluation of physicochemical water-quality indices of two surface water canals in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. Discov. Appl. Sci. 2025 Sep 30;7(10):1101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-025-07774-9 Fasuan O, Ogunnusi T, Akpor O. Investigation of the water-use behaviours of households in proximity to water canals in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Discover Water. 2025 Aug 14;5(1):70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00282-2 Federigi, I., Bonadonna, L., Bonanno Ferraro, G., Briancesco, R., Cioni, L., Coccia, A. M., Della Libera, S., Ferretti, E., Gramaccioni, L., Iaconelli, M., La Rosa, G., Lucentini, L., Mancini, P., Suffredini, E., Vicenza, T., Veneri, C., Verani, M., & Carducci, A. (2020). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment as support for bathing waters profiling. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 157, 111318. Fitzmorris-Brisolara, K., Maal-Bared, R., Worley-Morse, T., Danley-Thomson, A., & Sobsey, M. (2022). Monitoring coliphages to reduce waterborne infectious disease transmission in the One Water framework. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 240, 113921. Fitzpatrick J, Schoeny R, Gallagher K, Deener K, Dockins C, Firestone M, Jordan W, McDonough M, Murphy D, Olsen M, Raffaele K. US Environmental Protection Agency's framework for human health risk assessment to inform decision making. Int. J. Risk Assess. Manage. 2017;20(1-3):3-20. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJRAM.2017.082558 Fong, T. T., Phanikumar, M. S., Xagoraraki, I., & Rose, J. B. (2010). Quantitative detection of human adenoviruses in wastewater and combined sewer overflows influencing a Michigan river. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(3), 715–723. Gaur, N., Sarkar, A., Dutta, D., Gogoi, B. J., Dubey, R., & Dwivedi, S. K. (2022). Evaluation of water quality index and geochemical characteristics of surfacewater from Tawang India. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 11698. Giri, S., & Qiu, Z. (2016). Understanding the relationship of land uses and water quality in Twenty First Century: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 173, 41-48. Haas CN, Rose JB, Gerba CP. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment John Wiley & Sons. New York. 1999. Haas, C. N. (1996). How to average microbial densities to characterize risk. Water Research, 30(4), 1036-1038. Haas, C. N. (2020). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment and Molecular Biology: Paths to Integration. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(14), 8539–8546. Haas, C. N., Rose, J. B. & Gerba, C. P. (2014). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. John Wiley & Sons. Available from: https://ln.run/rkZG0. Accessed on: 15/07/2025 Haramoto, E., Katayama, H., Oguma, K., & Ohgaki, S. (2007). Quantitative analysis of human enteric adenoviruses in aquatic environments. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 103(6), 2153–2159. Hassard, F., Gwyther, C. L., Farkas, K., Andrews, A., Jones, V., Cox, B., Brett, H., Jones, D. L., McDonald, J. E., & Malham, S. K. (2016). Abundance and Distribution of Enteric Bacteria and Viruses in Coastal and Estuarine Sediments-a Review. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 1692. Heida, A., Maal-Bared, R., Veillette, M., Duchaine, C., Reynolds, K. A., Ashraf, A., Ogunseye, O. O., Jung, Y., Shulman, L., Ikner, L., Betancourt, W., Hamilton, K. A., & Wilson, A. M. (2024). Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) tool for modelling pathogen infection risk to wastewater treatment plant workers. Water Research, 260, 121858. Hellmér, M., Paxéus, N., Magnius, L., Enache, L., Arnholm, B., Johansson, A., Bergström, T., & Norder, H. (2014). Detection of pathogenic viruses in sewage provided early warnings of hepatitis A virus and norovirus outbreaks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 80(21), 6771–6781. Jacxsens, L., Uyttendaele, M., Luning, P., & Allende, A. (2017, April). Food safety management and risk assessment in the fresh produce supply chain. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 193, No. 1, p. 012020). IOP Publishing. Jofre, J. (2009). Is the replication of somatic coliphages in water environments significant?. Journal of applied microbiology, 106(4), 1059-1069. Jofre, J., Lucena, F., & Blanch, A. R. (2021). Coliphages as a complementary tool to improve the management of urban wastewater treatments and minimise health risks in receiving waters. Water, 13(8), 1110. Jofre, J., Lucena, F., Blanch, A. R., & Muniesa, M. (2016). Coliphages as Model Organisms in the Characterization and Management of Water Resources. Water, 8(5), 199. Jones, T. H., Brassard, J., Topp, E., Wilkes, G., & Lapen, D. R. (2017). Waterborne viruses and F-specific coliphages in mixed-use watersheds: Microbial associations, host specificities, and affinities with environmental/land use factors. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 83(3), e02763-16. Khan, A., Khan, A., Khan, F.A., Shah, L.A., Rauf, A.U., Badrashi, Y.I., Khan, W. and Khan, J. (2021). Assessment of the impacts of terrestrial determinants on surface water quality at multiple spatial scales. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 30(3), 2137-2147. Korf, I. H. E., Meier-Kolthoff, J. P., Adriaenssens, E. M., Kropinski, A. M., Nimtz, M., Rohde, M., van Raaij, M. J., & Wittmann, J. (2019). Still something to discover: Novel insights into Escherichia coli phage diversity and taxonomy. Viruses, 11(5), 454. Kumar, A., Taxak, A. K., Mishra, S., & Pandey, R. (2021). Long term trend analysis and suitability of water quality of River Ganga at Himalayan hills of Uttarakhand, India. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 22, 101405. LaKind, J. S., Burns, C. J., Johnson, G. T., & Lange, S. S. (2023). Epidemiology for risk assessment: the US Environmental Protection Agency quality considerations and the matrix. Hygiene and Environmental Health Advances, 6, 100059. Lee, J., Choi, E. H., & Lee, H. J. (2010). Comprehensive serotyping and epidemiology of human adenovirus isolated from the respiratory tract of Korean children over 17 consecutive years (1991-2007). Journal of Medical Virology, 82(4), 624–631. Li, Q. G., Zheng, Q. J., Liu, Y. H., & Wadell, G. (1996). Molecular epidemiology of adenovirus types 3 and 7 isolated from children with pneumonia in Beijing. Journal of Medical Virology, 49(3), 170–177. Li, X., Kelty, C. A., Sivaganesan, M., & Shanks, O. C. (2021). Variable fecal source prioritization in recreational waters routinely monitored with viral and bacterial general indicators. Water Research, 192, 116845. Lin, J., & Ganesh, A. (2013). Water quality indicators: bacteria, coliphages, enteric viruses. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 23(6), 484–506. Lynch, J. P., 3rd, & Kajon, A. E. (2016). Adenovirus: Epidemiology, Global Spread of Novel Serotypes, and Advances in Treatment and Prevention. Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 37(4), 586–602. Ma, J., Rene, E. R., Chen, Z., & Ma, W. (2022). Fate of PAHs in treated wastewater reused as irrigation water: Environmental risks in water-soil-ryegrass multimedia system. Journal of hazardous materials, 424, 127500. Mena, K. D., & Gerba, C. P. (2009). Waterborne adenovirus. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 198, 133–167. Miller, J. D., Workman, C. L., Panchang, S. V., Sneegas, G., Adams, E. A., Young, S. L., & Thompson, A. L. (2021). Water Security and Nutrition: Current Knowledge and Research Opportunities. Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 12(6), 2525–2539. Morsy El-Senousy, W. (2021). Suitability of some viruses as indices of viral pollution of water. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries, 25(4), 1049-1084. Muniesa, M., Lucena, F., & Jofre, J. (1999). Study of the potential relationship between the morphology of infectious somatic coliphages and their persistence in the environment. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 87(3), 402–409. Nappier, S. P., Hong, T., Ichida, A., Goldstone, A. & Eftim, S. E. (2019). Occurrence of coliphage in raw wastewater and in ambient water: a meta-analysis. Water Research, 153, 263-273. National Research Council (US) Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants (1994). Science and judgment in risk assessment. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208248/ Accessed on: 20/07/2025. Ngcobo, M., Murwirapachena, G., & Reddy, M. (2023). Water consumption behaviour and the use of technology among households in Durban, South Africa. Water Policy, 25(5), 523-543. Njage, P. M. K., Leekitcharoenphon, P., Hansen, L. T., Hendriksen, R. S., Faes, C., Aerts, M., & Hald, T. (2020). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Based on Whole Genome Sequencing Data: Case of Listeria monocytogenes. Microorganisms, 8(11), 1772. Ogunbode, T. O. & Asifat, J. T. (2021). Comparative assessment of pre-COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 lockdown water demand in selected institutions of learning in a growing community in Nigeria. European Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 11(4):38–45. Ogunbode, T. O., Oyebamiji, V. O., Oluwole, O. A., & Akande, J. A. (2023). Analysis of Household Daily Water Consumption Dynamics in the Tropical Environment. Scientifica, 2023, 9956847. Ogunbode, T. O., Victor, Oyebamiji, O., Oyelami, A. A., & Akinkuolie, T. A. (2025). Evaluating basic Okon, A. J., Inyang, I. B., Ugbe, U. M. J., Ekpenyong, B. N., & Olanrewaju, O. E. (2022). Effect of domestic solid waste disposal practices on quality of drinking water sources in some rural communities of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(11), 799. Olutumise, A. I. (2024). Preference for water sources and agricultural utilisation among rural households: a case of Akoko district of Ondo State, Nigeria. Discover Water, 4(1), 78. Owliaee, I., Khaledian, M., Mahmoudvand, S., Amini, R., Abney, S. E., Beikpour, F., & Jalilian, F. A. (2024). Global investigation of the presence of adenovirus in different types of water resources: a systematic review. Virus Disease, 35(1), 55–65. Petterson, S. R., & Ashbolt, N. J. (2016). QMRA and water safety management: review of application in drinking water systems. Journal of Water and Health, 14(4), 571-589. Pons-Salort, M., Oberste, M. S., Pallansch, M. A., Abedi, G. R., Takahashi, S., Grenfell, B. T., & Grassly, N. C. (2018). The seasonality of nonpolio enteroviruses in the United States: Patterns and drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(12), 3078–3083. Rames, E., Roiko, A., Stratton, H., & Macdonald, J. (2016). Technical aspects of using human adenovirus as a viral water quality indicator. Water Research, 96, 308–326. Rigaud, M., Buekers, J., Bessems, J., Basagaña, X., Mathy, S., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., & Slama, R. (2024). The methodology of quantitative risk assessment studies. Environmental Health, 23(1), 13. Ritchie, J. C., & Schiebe, F. R. (2000). Water quality. Remote Sensing in Hydrology and Water Management (pp. 287-303). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Rossi, A., Wolde, B. T., Lee, L. H., & Wu, M. (2020). Prediction of recreational water safety using Escherichia coli as an indicator: case study of the Passaic and Pompton rivers, New Jersey. Science of the Total Environment, 714, 136814. Rzezutka, A., & Cook, N. (2004). Survival of human enteric viruses in the environment and food. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 28(4), 441–453. Sackey, L. N. A., Kwablah, R., & Agyemang, L. S. Y. (2024). The Impact of Landfill Operations on Borehole Water Quality. The Scientific World Journal, 2024, 8899070. Santos, J. A. P., Juanico, E., Abello, J. J., Bondoc, J. L., & Rivera, W. L. (2024). Surveillance of human adenoviruses in water environments: Assessing the suitability of a locally developed quenching of unincorporated amplification signal reporters-loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay. Journal of Virological Methods, 330, 115041. Schijven, J. F., Teunis, P. F., Rutjes, S. A., Bouwknegt, M., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2011). QMRAspot: A tool for quantitative microbial risk assessment from surface water to potable water. Water Research, 45(17), 5564-5576. Shi, R., Zhao, J., Shi, W., Song, S., & Wang, C. (2020). Comprehensive assessment of water quality and pollution source apportionment in Wuliangsuhai Lake, Inner Mongolia, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(14), 5054. Sibanda, T., & Okoh, A. I. (2012). Assessment of the incidence of enteric adenovirus species and serotypes in surface waters in the eastern cape province of South Africa: Tyume River as a case study. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 949216. Sidhu, J. P. S., Sena, K., Hodgers, L., Palmer, A., & Toze, S. (2018). Comparative enteric viruses and coliphage removal during wastewater treatment processes in a sub-tropical environment. Science of the Total Environment, 616, 669-677. Singh, S., Pitchers, R., & Hassard, F. (2022). Coliphages as viral indicators of sanitary significance for drinking water. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 941532. Soller, J. A., Eftim, S. E., Warren, I., & Nappier, S. P. (2017). Evaluation of microbiological risks associated with direct potable reuse. Microbial Risk Analysis, 5, 3-14. Syeed, M. M., Hossain, M. S., Karim, M. R., Uddin, M. F., Hasan, M., & Khan, R. H. (2023). Surface water quality profiling using the water quality index, pollution index and statistical methods: A critical review. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 18, 100247. Sylvie, N. M. E., Bessa, A. Z. E., Mbomo, R. E. A., Akono, J. V., Dairou, B., & Pierre, K. (2024). Evaluation of surface water contamination and its impacts on health in the mining districts of Kambélé and Bétaré-Oya (Eastern-Cameroon). Heliyon, 10(7). Takuissu, G. R., Kenmoe, S., Ebogo-Belobo, J. T., Kengne-Ndé, C., Mbaga, D. S., Bowo-Ngandji, A., Ondigui Ndzie, J. L., Kenfack-Momo, R., Tchatchouang, S., Kenfack-Zanguim, J., Lontuo Fogang, R., Zeuko'o Menkem, E., Kame-Ngasse, G. I., Magoudjou-Pekam, J. N., Suffredini, E., Veneri, C., Mancini, P., Bonanno Ferraro, G., Iaconelli, M., Verani, M., & La Rosa, G. (2024). Exploring adenovirus in water environments: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 34(6), 2504–2516. Tang, L., Rhoads, W. J., Eichelberg, A., Hamilton, K. A., & Julian, T. R. (2024). Applications of quantitative microbial risk assessment to respiratory pathogens and implications for uptake in policy: A state-of-the-science review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 132(5), 56001. Teunis, P. & Havelaar, A. (2000). The Beta Poisson dose‐response model is not a single‐hit model. Risk Analysis, 20(4), 513-520. Teunis, P. & Schijven, J. F. (2019). Generic guidance to quantitative microbial risk assessment for food and water. WHO Collaborating Centre Risk Assessment of Pathogens in Food and Water, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment. Available from: https://rivm.openrepository.com/server/api/core/bitstreams/efd5c89c-e8bd-4a56-96ab-c381cf5a7468/content Teunis, P. F. M., Medema, G. J., Kruidenier, L., & Havelaar, A. H. (1997). Assessment of the risk of infection by Cryptosporidium or Giardia in drinking water from a surface water source. Water Research, 31(6), 1333-1346. Toribio-Avedillo, D., Blanch, A. R., Muniesa, M., & Rodríguez-Rubio, L. (2021). Bacteriophages as Fecal Pollution Indicators. Viruses, 13(6), 1089. United State Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). An examination of EPA risk assessment principles and practices. Staff paper prepared for the US EPA by members of the risk assessment task force, 53-53. United States Environmental Protection Agency & U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service. (2012). Microbial risk assessment guideline: Pathogenic microorganisms with focus on food and water (Report Nos. EPA/100/J-12/001; USDA/FSIS/2012-001). Interagency Microbiological Risk Assessment Guideline Workgroup. Available from https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2013-09/documents/mra-guideline-final.pdf. Accessed on: 27/07/2025 Usman, N. & Suarez, M. (2023). Adenoviruses. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559072/. Accessed on: 21/07/2025. World Health Organisation (2017a). Global status report on water safety plans: a review of proactive risk assessment and risk management practices to ensure the safety of drinking-water. Available from: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/246195/9789241565370-eng.pdf. Accessed on: 24/07/2025 World Health Organisation (2023). Drinking Water. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water. Accessed on: 20/07/2025. World Health Organization & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2020). Dose-response assessment and derivation of health-based guidance values. Principles for risk assessment of chemicals in food (Environmental Health Criteria 240, 2nd ed., Chapter 5). Available from: https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/food-safety/publications/chapter5-dose-response.pdf. Accessed on: 21/07/2025. World Health Organization (2016a). Protecting Surface Water for Health. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/246196/1/9789241510554-eng.pdf?ua=1. Accessed on: 30/05/2025. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund (2006). Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys. World Health Organization. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund (2018). Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Available from: https://washdata.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/2019-03/JMP-2018-core-questions-for-household-surveys.pdf. Accessed on: 15/02/2025. World Health Organization. Multicriteria-based ranking for risk management of food-borne parasites: report of a Joint FAO/WHO expert meeting, 3-7 September 2012, FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy. FAO, World Health Organisation; 2014 Apr 30. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/112672/9789241564700_eng.pdf World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2003). Hazard characterization for pathogens in food and water: Guidelines. Available from: https://www.fao.org/4/y4666e/y4666e0b.htm. Accessed on: 21/07/2025. Wyn-Jones, A. P., Carducci, A., Cook, N., D'Agostino, M., Divizia, M., Fleischer, J., Gantzer, C., Gawler, A., Girones, R., Höller, C., de Roda Husman, A. M., Kay, D., Kozyra, I., López-Pila, J., Muscillo, M., Nascimento, M. S., Papageorgiou, G., Rutjes, S., Sellwood, J., Szewzyk, R., & Wyer, M. (2011). Surveillance of adenoviruses and noroviruses in European recreational waters. Water Research, 45(3), 1025–1038. Yang, X., Cai, S., Wu, X., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Chen, Y., Chen, Q., Zhu, S., Yan, D., Xu, W., Zhang, H., Chen, Z., Zhang, S., Zhou, Y., Zhang, M., Zheng, N., & You, N. (2023). Analysis of the distribution characteristics of enterovirus types based on environmental surveillance from 2013 to 2021 in Fujian Province, China. Biosafety and Health, 5(4), 240–249. Zacchaeus, O. O., Adeyemi, M. B., Adedeji, A. A., Adegoke, K. A., Anumah, A. O., Taiwo, A. M., & Ganiyu, S. A. (2020). Effects of industrialization on groundwater quality in Shagamu and Ota industrial areas of Ogun state, Nigeria. Heliyon, 6(7). Zhang, M., Ichihara, G., Zhou, Z., Lou, J., & Wang, D. (2023). Editorial: Qualitative and quantitative risk assessment of hazardous substances in the workplace. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1207487. Zozmann H., Klassert C., Klauer B., Gawel E. (2022). Water procurement time and its implications for household water demand—insights from a water diary study in five informal settlements of pune, India. Water 14 (7), 1009. Zuckerman, A. J., Banatvala, J. E., Schoub, B. D., Griffiths, P. D. & Mortimer, P. (2009) Principles and Practice of Clinical Virology, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.