References

BJAR

British Journal of Advanced Research

BJAR

Ivory and Finch Publishers

Pending

BJAR_JUN_26_007

Original Research Article

Structure, Function, and Connectivity in The Multilingual Brain: A Systematic Review of Neurolinguistic Evidence and Implications for Language Education

Mohd Shakil Imtiaz Fahad

Gazi

https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5443-1271

Faculty, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University fahad@mbstu.ac.bd

10 07 2026

1 1

The rapid development of neuroimaging technology has turned neurolinguistics into one of the most empirical areas of cognitive science, although the pedagogical translation into formal language education curricula remains disproportionately limited. This research addresses this gap by means of a mixed-methods study that triangulates three independent strands of data: a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) compliant Systematic Literature Review (SLR), a structured survey (N = 14) and a qualitative protocol comprising semi-structured interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The SLR based on 487 records from Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and ERIC (2010-2025) identified 33 high-quality peer-reviewed studies evaluated with a binary Quality Assessment Rule (QAR; inter-rater κ = .84). The structured survey utilized the 58-item Neurolinguistic Profile and Performance Assessment Scale (NIPPAS), which operationalized ten neurolinguistically grounded constructs: Executive Control (EC), Metalinguistic Awareness (MA), Structural Language Processing (SLP), Cross-linguistic Connectivity (CLC), Adaptive Communication (AC), Metacognitive Monitoring (MM), Multilingual Memory (MEM), Neuroplasticity Indicators (NPI), Sociocultural Integration (SCI), and Language Acquisition Efficiency (LAE). One-sample t-tests confirmed that nine of ten construct means were significantly higher than the neutral midpoint (μ0 = 3.0; all p < .05), with Metacognitive Monitoring producing the greatest effect (M = 3.99, d = 1.38) with Structural Language Processing result, i.e., (t(13) = 4.606, p <.001, d = 1.23). Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .549 to .977. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically, which suggested three superordinate themes: Executive Flexibility as Cognitive Resource, Affective Mediation of Inter-lingual Suppression, and Sociocultural Embeddedness of Multilingual Cognition. Collectively, the findings support a four-domain conceptual framework: Structural, Functional, Connectivity, and Educational, which leads to recommendations for language curriculum design, teacher training and multilingual policy.

Multilingual Brain; Neurolinguistics; Executive Control; Cross-Linguistic Connectivity; Language Education; Neuroplasticity

22 06 2026

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

References

Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge University Press.

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.

Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222–251.

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters.

Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. Putnam.

Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340.

García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan.

Grosjean, F. (1989). Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. Brain and Language, 36(1), 3–15.

Grosjean, F., & Li, P. (2013). The psycholinguistics of bilingualism. Wiley-Blackwell.Kim, K. H., Relkin, N. R., Lee, K. M., & Hirsch, J. (1997). Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature, 388(6638), 171–174.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press. Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 497–514.

Luk, G., De Sa, E., & Bialystok, E. (2011). Is there a relation between onset age of bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive control? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(4), 588–595.

Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Noppeney, U., O'Doherty, J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Price, C. J. (2004). Neurolinguistics: Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Nature, 431(7010), 757.

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71.